Adaptive Roles of CRISPR-Cas Systems in Prokaryotic Immunity and Genome Editing: A Narrative Review
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CRISPR-Cas systems have emerged as one of the most transformative genome-editing technologies due to their ability to provide precise, programmable, and efficient manipulation of genetic information. Originally identified as adaptive immune systems in bacteria and archaea, CRISPR-Cas mechanisms enable microorganisms to recognise and eliminate invading genetic materials through coordinated interactions between CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and Cas proteins. This narrative review examines the molecular mechanisms of CRISPR-Cas adaptive immunity in prokaryotes, the classification and functions of major Cas proteins, and their repurposing for genome editing applications. A literature search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar and Scopus using the keywords “CRISPR”, “Cas9”, “adaptive immunity”, “genome editing”, “gene therapy” and “off-target effects” combined with Boolean operators (AND and OR). Articles included were publications between 2016 to 2026. The findings show that CRISPR-Cas adaptive immunity involves three major stages: adaptation, CRISPR RNA processing, and interference, where Cas proteins such as Cas9, Cas12, and Cas13 mediate targeted nucleic acid recognition and cleavage. Repurposed CRISPR systems have enabled advances in genome editing, gene therapy, infectious disease diagnostics, cancer research, and agricultural biotechnology. However, challenges including off-target effects, immune responses, delivery limitations, and ethical concerns surrounding human genome modification remain significant barriers. CRISPR-Cas technology represents a powerful precision-engineering platform requiring improved specificity, safety mechanisms, and ethical regulatory frameworks to maximize its therapeutic and scientific potential.
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