Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Molecular Analysis of Giardia lamblia Infection among Primary School Pupils in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria: A Cross-Sectional Study
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
Giardia lamblia is an intestinal protozoan parasite causing giardiasis, a significant cause of diarrhoeal disease among children. Data on its occurrence and molecular distribution among Nigerian schoolchildren remain limited. This study assessed the prevalence, risk factors, and molecular profile of G. lamblia infection among primary school pupils in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 183 pupils selected using stratified random sampling across four Local Government Areas. Stool samples were examined microscopically and analysed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for G. lamblia antigen detection and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for molecular analysis of genetic assemblages. A structured questionnaire assessed relevant risk factors. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and chi-square tests at p ≤ 0.05. Overall prevalence was 9.29% (17/183). Prevalence varied significantly across locations, with the highest at LGEA Primary School, Nasarawa, 17.02% (8/47), and lowest at LGEA Primary School, Kawo, 4.35% (2/46) (p ≤ 0.05). Pupils aged 7–11 years had a prevalence of 11.84%, with lower prevalence among older groups. Significant associations were observed between infection and selected hygiene factors, including toilet type. PCR amplification produced a 272-bp product specific for G. lamblia Assemblage B, identified among the molecularly analysed samples. Assemblage B distribution was significantly associated with demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. G. lamblia infection occurs among primary school pupils in Kaduna Metropolis, with Assemblage B detected among molecularly analysed samples. The findings underscore the need for health education, improved sanitation, safe drinking water, and targeted school-based interventions to reduce giardiasis transmission.
Downloads
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
References
Abdulabbas, A., Dhoha, R., & Hamza, A. (2022). Incidence of giardiasis among population at Wasit province. Journal of Wasit for Science and Medicine, 198, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.31185/jwsm.198.
Adam, R.D. (2021). Giardia duodenalis: Biology and Pathogenesis. Clinical Microbiology 15;34(4). doi:10.1128/CMR.00024-19.
Ali, A., Osman Ga'al, A., Osman, A., Said, M. A., & Elmi, I. Y. (2020). Prevalence of Giardia lamblia among children attended at SOS Hospital. African Journal of Health and Medical Sciences, 5(1), 47. https://doi.org/10.59067/afjhms.v5i1.47
Ali, I. Y., Mero, W. M. S., & Mohammed, A. B. (2022). Prevalence and risk factors of Giardia lamblia among infants and children in Duhok province/Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Academic Journal of Nawroz University, 11(4), 1597. https://doi.org/10.25007/ajnu.v11n4a1597
Bature, A.S., Opotu, L.A. &Mounkaila, N. (2021). Evaluation of Water Supply and Sanitation Situation in Kaduna Metropolis in Northern Nigeria. Public Health Research, 11(1): 1-14
Belkessa, S., Ait-Salem, E., Laatamna, A., Houali, K., Sȍnksen, U.W., Hakem, A., Bouchene, Z., Ghalmi, F., and Stensvold, C.R., (2021). Prevalence and clinical manifestation of Giardia intestinalis and other intestinal parasites in children and adults in Algeria. American Journal of Tropical Medical Hygiene. 104(3): 910-916.
Brinkhoff, T. (2022). City population. Kaduna State in Nigeria. Population Statistics, Charts, Map and Location
Cacciò, S. M., La Rosa, G., Fratini, F., &Pozio, E. (2018). Genotyping of Giardia duodenalis from human and animal feces by PCR-RFLP analysis of the β-giardin gene. Veterinary Parasitology, 167(1), 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.08.004
Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2024). Parasites Giardia. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/girdia/pathogen.htmL
Chelsea, M. & William, A. P. Giardiasis. (2024). MSD Manual professional version. https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/intestinal-protozoa-and- microsporidia/giardiasis
Cotton, J. A., Beatty, J. K., &Buret, A. G. (2014). Host parasite interactions and pathophysiology in Giardia infections. International Journal for Parasitology, 44(10), 925-933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2014.07.004
Dunn, N., & Juergens, N.L. (2024). Giardiasis. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513239/
Einarsson, E., Ma’ayeh, S., & Svärd, S. G. (2016). An up-to-date view on Giardia and giardiasis. Parasitology, 143(4), 439-455. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182015001654
Enitan, S. S., Oluchi, N. J., Digban, K. A., Akele, R. Y., & Olofinsae, S. (2022). Assessment of intestinal parasitic infections among school-aged children in relation to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices in [Region], Nigeria. [Journal Name, e.g., International Journal of Health Sciences], 12(4)
Eric, M.S. & Michael, H.P. (2024). Girdiasis. Medscape. https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/176718-overview?
Faria, C., P., Zanini, G., M., Dias, G., S., da Silva, S. & Sous- Mdo, C. (2016). Molecular Characterization of Giardia lamblia: First Report of Assemblage B in Human Isolates from Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). PLoS One. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160762.
Farzad, M., Morteza S., Alireza, S., Laya, S., Mostafa, O., Ali, A., Soheil, H. & Amir, M.S. (2021). Global prevalence and associated risk factors of diarrhoeagenic Giardia duodenalis in HIV/AIDS patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Microbial Pathogenesis, 160(105202). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2021.105202, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0882401021004769
Gautam, J., Parajuli, R.P. & Pandey, K. (2024). Prevalence and associated factors of intestinal parasitic infections in the Badi indigenous communities of Western Nepal. Journal of Health Population and Nutrition 43, 211 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-024-00694-1
Hajare, S. W., Betcha, A., Sharma, R., Bhosale, S. B., Upadhye, V., Kuddus, M., & Eriso, F. (2022). Giardia lamblia infection and associated risk factors among patients attending Kochore Health Center, Ethiopia. Infectious Diseases Now, 52(4), 321–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idnow.2022.04.005
Hajare, S.W., Chekol, Y. & Chauhan, N.M. (2022). Assessment of prevalence of Giardia lamblia infection and its associated factors among government elementary school children from Sidama zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia. PLoS One. 15;17(3) doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264812.
Hamad, A. A. (2024). An Assessment of the Epidemiology and In vitro Susceptibility of Giardia lamblia Trophozoites and Cysts to a Variety of Plant Extracts. Microbiology Research Journal International, 34(7), 113-123.
Helen, I. I., Binta, Y. & Sabo, Y. E. (2011). Asymptomatic Giardiasis and Nutritional Status of Children in Two Local Government Areas in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Sierra Leone Journal of Biomedical Research, 3 (3): 157-162.
Hooshyar, H., Rostamkhani, P., Arbabi, M., &Delavari, M. (2019). Giardia lamblia infection: review of current diagnostic strategies. Gastroenterology and hepatology from bed to bench, 12(1), 3–12.
Jex, A. R., Svärd, S., Hagen, K. D., Starcevich, H., Emery-Corbin, S. J., Balan, B., Nosala, C., & Dawson, S. C. (2020). Recent advances in functional research in Giardia intestinalis. Advances in parasitology, 107, 97–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.apar.2019.12.002
Khanum, H., Kadir, R., Arju, T., Ahmed, T., Karim, M. T., Sultana, A., & Huque, R. (2015). Detection of Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium sp. infection among diarrhoeal patients. Bangladesh Journal of Zoology, 43(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3329/BJZ.V43I1.26132
Klotz, C., Schmid, M.W., Winter, K., Ignatius, R., Weisz, F., Saghaug, C.S., Langeland, N., Dawson. S., Lalle, M., Hanevik, K., Cacciò, S.M. & Aebischer, T. (2023). Highly contiguous genomes of human clinical isolates of Giardia duodenalis reveal assemblage- and sub-assemblage-specific presence-absence variation in protein-coding genes. Microbial genomics, 9(3), mgen000963, https://doi.org/10.1099/mgen.0.000963
Kumar, T., Majid, M.A.A., Onichandran, S. et al. (2016) Presence of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia in water samples from Southeast Asia: towards an integrated water detection system. Infection Diseases of Poverty 5, 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-016-0095-z
Lalle, M., Pozio, E., Capelli, G., Bruschi, F., Crotti, D., &Cacciò, S. M. (2016). Genetic heterogeneity at the β-giardin locus among human and animal isolates of Giardia duodenalis and identification of potentially zoonotic subgenotypes. International Journal for Parasitology, 35(2), 207–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2004.12.008
Mohammed, M., &Omudu, E. A. (2011). The prevalence of intestinal parasites among school children in rural and semi-urban areas of Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria. Sierra Leone Journal of Biomedical Research, 3(3), 163–168.
Naing, L., Winn, T. & Rusli, B.N. (2006). Practical Issues in calculating sample size for prevalence studies. Archives of feacal Sciences, 1: 9-14
Nawaz, Z., Rasool, M. H., Siddique, A. B., Zahoor, M. A., Naz, A., Ali, S., & Mukhtar, M. U. (2019). Frequency and molecular detection of Giardia intestinalis in children attending pediatrics of Punjab, Pakistan. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology, 13(1).
Nuhu, H.T & Bartholomew, J. L. (2020). Impacts of Urban Sprawl on Livability in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific Research in Science and Technology, available at http://doi.org/10.32628/IJSRST207644.
Pouryousef, A., Fararouei, M. & Sarkari, B. (2023). Antigen-Based Diagnosis of Human Giardiasis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Iran Journal Parasitol..doi: 10.18502/ijpa.v18i2.13180.
Prabakaran, M., Weible, L.J., Champlain, J.D., Jiang, R.Y., Biondi, K., Weil, A.A., Van-Voorhis, W.C. & Ojo, K.K. (2023). The Gut-Wrenching Effects of Cryptosporidiosis and Giardiasis in Children. Microorganisms. 15;11(9):2323. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11092323.
Rigasa,Y.A., Badamasi, A.G. & Abdulkarim, B.I. (2015). The evolution of value chains and recycling opportunities in the informal management of municipal solid waste of Kaduna metropolis, Nigeria. Biological and Environmental Sciences Journal for the Tropics, 12(1): 794 – 905
Ryan, U., and Zahedi, A., (2019). A molecular epidemiology of giardiasis from a veterinary perspective. Advanced Parasitology, 106: 209-254.
Saleh, A. B., Ahmed, E. F., Mahmoud, M. S., & Abdel-Hafeez, E. H. (2018). Molecular and microscopic detection of Giardia lamblia in stool samples from symptomatic and asymptomatic children in Egypt. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology, 48(1), 187–196.
Sridhar, M., Okareh, O. T., and Mustapha, M. (2020). Assessment of Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices on Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene in Some Selected LGAs in Kaduna State, Northwestern Nigeria. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 1 (14), 10.1155/2020/6532512
Sulaiman, I. M., & Xiao, L. (2020). Molecular characterization of Giardia parasites in humans and animals in North America. Journal of Parasitology Research, 104(4), 387-392. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/104389.
World Health Organization (WHO). (2019). Bench aids for the diagnosis of intestinal parasites. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization.